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Since the sixteenth century this flask has been one of the most admired objects in the Medici collection, justly praised for its fantastic and elegant design as well as for its refined hardstone carving and goldsmith work. Carved from a monolithic block of lapis lazuli by an unknown sculptor working from a preliminary drawing by the architect Bernardo Buontalenti (on view in the exhibition), it liberally and expressively interprets the academic tradition of Renaissance artistry. The carved stone was complemented with exquisite gold and enamel fittings made by the Flemish goldsmith Jacques Bijlivert. The result is one of the most spectacular treasury objects ever created.
The vase is a rare survivor of the legendary collection of pietre dure objects amassed in the quattrocento by Piero de' Medici and his son, Lorenzo the Magnificent, whose name the initials represent. The form reflects the owner's leading role in the humanist culture of Florence, which greatly venerated the artistic language of the ancient world. A special place was reserved in the Medici collections for la glittica (glyptics), works of hardstone such as cameos and vases, and, later, Florentine hardstone mosaics, or commessi di pietre dure. Some of these early Medici vases survived only because Pope Clement VII (Giulio de' Medici) donated them in 1532 to the Basilica of San Lorenzo, the Medici family church in Florence, where they were transformed into reliquaries and thus not altered to accommodate the changing fashions of later periods.
This sarcophagus-shaped reliquary from the treasury of the Florentine Baptistery is remarkable for the multicolored pietre dure decorating its wooden structure. The seductive array of jasper and agate adorning the lid is arranged in parallel rows to form a revetment, or facing, of scalelike roof tiles, and the sides show a polychrome pattern of variously cut miniature stone lozenges. The object appears to represent the first use of hardstones in such an artistic manner. The geometric arrangement also seems to foreshadow the Florentine centuries-long fascination with complex patterns of intricate stone inlay. The reliquary's shape reflects the design of Andrea del Verrocchio's sarcophagus for Giovanni and Piero de' Medici in the Old Sacristy at San Lorenzo, dated 1472–73.
The goldsmith and designer Giovanni Giardini made this object for Pope Clement XI (r. 1700–1712), who presented it to Giovanni Battista Borghese, ambassador to the Holy See for King Philip V of Spain. Later, it was part of the collection of the princes of Thurn und Taxis in Sankt Emmeram Castle in Regensburg, Germany. Giardini's prized devotional objects were intended for private use or for small, intimate chapels. Their technical perfection is such that they outshine many similar fine works made in Rome during the same period. The combination of the light-catching gilded metal and the lapis lazuli with its myriad flecks of sparkling golden pyrites has a mesmerizing effect. Lapis lazuli symbolizes the choir of saints in heaven, and the attention of the person using this stoup would have been directed toward heaven, a treasury of everlasting joy. Set around the silver relief of Mary of Egypt in ecstasy, the lapis plaques also suggest that the saint is part of the company of heaven. A related object is preserved in the Schatzkammer, or Treasury, of the Residenz in Munich.
For centuries, the main European port of entry for exotic hardstones from the Orient was Venice; a local hardstone carvers' guild was already established there in 1284. Venetian luxury goods encouraged the growth of the pietre dure industry, not only in Italy but also in much of Europe beyond the Alps. Wealthy Venetians preferred elaborate cabinets furnished with many drawers and secret compartments to hold their collections of rare and beautiful objects. Frequently, these cabinets reflect contemporary palatial architecture; the miniature format offered an opportunity to "build" these small imitation palaces using the most precious and costly materials. The unusual fall front forms an apronlike vertical extension of the façade when fully open. Its inner surface is decorated with a striking pattern of marquetry strapwork and shaped hardstone inserts alluding to the Oriental carpet that would have covered the usually simple support. The semiprecious stone tablets with beautiful veining (naturalia) and the elegant design and fine craftsmanship of the wood structure, decorated with Oriental-style lacquer, sparkling gold paint, and arabesques (arteficialia), make this a curiosity cabinet par excellence. The exotic alabaster, lapis lazuli, and amethyst from Afghanistan were either brought west along the Ottoman trade routes that ended in Venice or were spoils from Byzantium.
This finely carved perfume bottle (amphoriskos, in Greek) was made from white- and dark-banded agate, a semiprecious stone commonly used for cameos and vessels in antiquity; rarely found in Europe, it was imported, mostly from India. The material, quality, and purpose of this bottle indicate that it was a luxury object carved for the personal use of a member of the Roman aristocracy. It is an early masterpiece in the long tradition of fine decorative and domestic objects carved from agate. The numerous Roman carved gems and vessels that survive formed the nucleus of European princely collections throughout the centuries. They were treasured for their beauty and rarity as well as their artistic, material, and political value, since they conveyed associations with the mighty power of the Roman Empire.
The coat of arms is that of Cardinal Maffeo Barberini (later Pope Urban VIII; 1568–1644). During his pontificate he became a most energetic art patron; his commissions include Gianlorenzo Bernini's baldachin above the high altar of Saint Peter's. Most of the drawers are decorated with scenes from Aesop's Fables after woodcuts in Francesco del Tuppo's edition (Naples, 1485). Two plaques, however, show mythical creatures: to the left of the cabinet's door is a salamander (emblem of Francis I of France, like Maffeo a celebrated patron of the arts), and to the right is a phoenix (emblem of Pope Clement VIII, who had appointed Maffeo nuncio to the French court). The center of the door is occupied by Orpheus, the legendary Thracian poet, who plays his lyre, charming the animals with his music. The Orpheus theme was a popular one at the Galleria dei Lavori: at least twenty-two sets of hardstone mosaic Orpheus plaques, most with slight variations, are documented.Florentine pietre dure works reached as far as India, where they embellish the throne room of the Red Fort in Delhi. There, at the top of the alcove, is an almost identical panel depicting Orpheus. This significant piece, which is surrounded by other Florentine panels, must have impressed the Indian Mughal rulers in the same way that exotic imports from the East—like ivories, lacquer, and Chinese porcelain—mesmerized Western monarchs.
This panel belonged to a set of at least eleven, with alternating representations of orange trees and flowers. The panels were installed in a private oratory in the Medici villa at Poggio Imperiale. To members of the Medici family praying there, these lovely images of nature did not refer to the real gardens that surrounded the villa but rather symbolized the endless and abundant cycle of life by representing the flowering colors of nature in stone, which will neither fade nor die. The orange tree, one of the trees of Paradise, alludes to the Passion of Christ and the Redemption. It is evergreen and blossoms even in winter; its white flower stands for purity and chastity. The oratory at Poggio Imperiale was dismantled when the villa was renovated in the Neoclassical taste, and the panels were put in storage at the Galleria dei Lavori. They are early examples of using black Belgian marble for a mosaic ground. It later became the obligatory background for dazzling colored-stone inlays of flowers, fruit, and birds—the principal subject matter of Florentine mosaics—throughout the seventeenth century.
On September, 20, 1667, the sculptor Cappelli submitted a bill for twenty-eight scudi to the grand-ducal workshops for two bronze statuettes—an infant and a monkey—with their wax models. The sculptures, combined with a basket of fruit in pietre dure, were designed to crown a jewelry cabinet made for Vittoria della Rovere. In 1669, when the statuettes were consigned to the cabinetmaker Maures, "the monkey" was described as a gatto mammone, a fairy-tale monster. This change in the description may reflect a new understanding of the themes in the cabinet's decoration, which would have been chosen by the patroness, Grand Duchess Vittoria della Rovere, wife of Ferdinand II de' Medici. She loved pearls, esteeming them for their luster and as symbols of purity. The duchess's motto Dos in candore ("The gift of purity") is represented on her cabinet by "shells" and "pearls" of semiprecious stones. On either side is a half-shell that encloses one pearl; on the front, two half shells are depicted, each containing three pearls—an allusion to the six balls (palle) in her husband's coat of arms. The veining and mottling of the hardstone fruit in the basket suggests the inevitability of decay, the vanity of earthly things. The putto attempts to keep the monkey from touching the fruit. The scene may represent innocent purity in conflict with temptation.
This imposing cabinet is embellished with two stylized nereids holding a cartouche crowned by an elector's bonnet and the monogram MEC (for Maximilian Emanuel Curfürst), documenting that the piece once belonged to Maximilian II Emanuel, elector (Kurfürst) of Bavaria (r. 1679–1726). It is generally believed that the elector commissioned the cabinet sometime after 1680, though he may have received it instead as a diplomatic gift from the Medici family. In 1689 the younger sister of Maximilian II, Violante Beatrix, married Grand Prince Ferdinand de' Medici (1663–1713), and the occasion would have offered an excellent reason for the gift. The cabinet's form, which is distantly reminiscent of ancient triumphal architecture, and the depiction in pietre dure of a triumphal arch in the front center are appropriate choices for a princely present. Following the imperial Roman tradition, triumphal arches were a symbol of rule and worldly power. Not surprisingly, the front also recalls Florentine Baroque church façades, such as that of Ognissanti, designed by Matteo Nigetti. The polygons in the base panels probably were made in Giuliano di Piero Pandolfini's workshop in Florence in the late 1620s or 1630s and inspired by geometrical inventions of the goldsmith Wenzel Jamnitzer, illustrated in his Perspectiva Corporum Regularium of 1568.
Boxes of this type were made either as luxurious display items for the Medici's use or as diplomatic gifts to the kings and courtiers of Europe. The rectangular form offered large, flat surfaces on which to display the superior skill of the Florentine pietre dure masters and, by extension, the grandeur of Florence's ruling dynasty. Drawings of related caskets and bronze mounts by the designer of this box, Giovanni Battista Foggini (1652–1725) show close comparisons with this example. The use of flesh-colored chalcedony instead of the usual bronze for the faces at the corners of the box may have been intended to convey a special message. If, for example, the box were to be a bridal gift, these hardstone faces that never age and never wrinkle would remind the mortal recipient that human beauty is fleeting. Similar chalcedony masks appear on Foggini's Cabinet Made for The Elector Palatine.
This extraordinary prie-dieu, or prayer stool, was one of the magnificent furnishings Cosimo III de' Medici sent his daughter Anna Maria Luisa, who in 1691 had married Johann Wilhelm, the elector Palatine, and moved to his court in Düsseldorf. The grand duke of Tuscany generously gave precious objects created in his famous Florentine workshops to courts across Europe, but he saved the best for his cherished daughter. Giuseppe Antonio Torricelli (1659–1719) carved each of the cherub heads from a single piece of Volterran chalcedony and numerous other hardstones were employed in the exuberant naturalistic swags laden with colorful fruit. The prie-dieu's hinged top can be flipped up to provide access to a small storage space, perhaps for a prayer book. The top of the kneeling board also lifts, revealing a perfect place in which to hide a cushion.
Cosimo III de' Medici sent this extraordinary cabinet to his daughter Anna Maria Luisa in Düsseldorf. It celebrates her husband, Johann Wilhelm, the elector Palatine, who is portrayed in the apse-shaped niche. Sculpted in chalcedony and gilded bronze, the figure sits atop military trophies that represent his absolute power. Above, allegorical figures symbolizing the virtuous ruler's magnanimity and strength frame the coat of arms representing the princely union of the Medici and Palatine-Neuburg dynasties. Crowning the cabinet is his motto, Dominus virtutum nobiscum ("The Lord of hosts is with us"). The Galleria dei Lavori's refined balance of design and impeccable craftsmanship make this cabinet a masterpiece of the European Baroque. Reflecting the period's desire to amaze, the object has concealed surprises, including a trio of hidden drawers in the lower fascia, behind the three original mosaic panels, and four more with rosewood veneer behind the door in the base. The most magnificent surprise awaits the viewer behind the two doors flanking the central niche. They open to reveal two symmetrical spaces decorated like canted halls of mirrors in miniature with hardstone columns, and in each is a circle of five dancing putti beneath a tiny but perfect rock-crystal chandelier.
This bust was sculpted from a lavishly violet-colored amethyst in a design after the antique by Paul Heermann. The pose, facial features, and hairdo are reminiscent of early Hellenistic precedents. The complex stonecutting by Johann Christoph Hübner was done using a fascinating technique: the proper right side of the face is made of fragments of amethyst fitted together, whereas the left side was cut from a single piece. The neck, shoulders, and chest, above the garment of gilded bronze, were carved from tufa, to which carefully cut and polished pieces of amethyst were cemented. The modeling is exquisite, especially the animated folds of the drapery, which skillfully reveal the shape of the breasts. This masterwork was prominently displayed on a table in a window niche of the Grünes Gewölbe (Green Vault) in the Dresden royal palace by 1733.
During the eighteenth century precious materials and inventive design were lavished on boxes used to store sugar, candies, cosmetics implements, beauty patches, and other small or valuable items. Especially popular was the snuffbox, or tabatière, and nobody loved them more than King Frederick the Great of Prussia (1712–1786). After the king's death two hundred sumptuous snuffboxes were inventoried at Sanssouci, his principal residence in Potsdam. One box was made of pure gold, the others were of hardstones decorated in his favorite Rococo style, with diamond rosettes. Part of the green chrysoprase's appeal may have lain in its reputation for healing powers: since ancient times, it was believed to protect against gout, from which Frederick suffered almost all his life. It is documented that "during his last illness, he passed the time enjoying his little treasures, his jewels, boxes, and finger rings, and [handling pieces of] cut and raw chrysoprase." The beautiful stone was mined at Frankenstein (today Zabkowice), in Silesia. The elegant diamond rosettes, set in gold over foil in delicately changing pastel colors, bestow a magical light on the object when turned in the sun or near a flickering candle.
This hardstone tabletop was made for Louis XIV. Four panels depicting flowers, six representing birds, and an additional six featuring landscapes are set around an oval medallion showing Diana, goddess of the hunt. Her presence suggests that the iconographic scheme refers to the royal hunt, one of the king's favorite pastimes. The four corner panels showing stylized exotic birds and the four smaller landscape scenes in the central field are reminiscent of Florentine mosaics in their design and manufacture, but the larger ornithological depictions and the overall layout of the tabletop reflect the taste of Charles Le Brun (1619–1690), the court painter for Louis XIV.
The diameters of this Egyptian porphyry vase and stand are the same, suggesting that they were cut from a single piece, probably an ancient column. The discovery of an impurity that runs up through the stand and continues into the vase at the same position clinches the argument. The column was probably taken from an ancient Roman structure, either an extant monument or an excavated ruin, and shipped to France. Since ancient times porphyry had a special status, its purple being the imperial color. This example was refashioned by François-Joseph Bélanger, one of France's foremost architects of the Neoclassical age, who transformed it into a collector's item. The vase is not hollow—it was never meant to be used.
In the galleries, this tabletop is displayed alongside the Console Tabletop with Allegory of Air and two gilded consoles. The history of this unique ensemble, reunited in this exhibition for the first time after more than two centuries, is complex. The Allegory of Water hardstone top was executed in little more than a year, after Giuseppe Zocchi's design of January 1760. By April 1761 this marvel of trompe l'oeil in pietre dure and a carved and gilded wooden base with a mermaid and shells (now lost) were on their way to the imperial palace in Vienna, home of the new ruler of Tuscany, Grand Duke Francis Stephen of Habsburg-Lorraine (1708–1765). Following his marriage to Archduchess Maria Theresa of Habsburg in 1737, the couple lived in Florence and surely admired the artistic pietre dure objects in the grand-ducal collection. Francis Stephen, who was interested in the natural sciences and apparently entranced by the Allegory of Water, ordered the Allegory of Air. Zocchi composed various preparatory studies and a painted modello (both of whichh are on view in the exhibition). During the creation of this pendant table, the emperor died. He was succeeded by his son Peter Leopold (1747–1792), grand duke of Tuscany, who had no intention of sending this major work of art to Vienna. Instead, he envisioned having a second version of the Allegory of Water made for himself in the grand-ducal workshop for his new official residence, the Palazzo Pitti in Florence. The Allegory of Air top was completed in 1766, and a replica of the Allegory of Water was made soon thereafter. Carved by the master Giovanni Battista Dolci and gilded by Francesco Ristori, the elaborate wooden console shows "four legs in the French style." The carved decor reflects the two tops' themes: flowers nourishing butterflies; and shells and coral, products of exotic oceans. The singular set did not stay together long. After Napoleon's invasion of Italy in 1799, his agents took the tops to Paris and left the outdated stands behind. The Allegory of Air top stayed in Paris, where it is now one of the pietre dure masterpieces in the Louvre. Empress Joséphine liked the second version of the Allegory of Water and kept it at her château de Malmaison. Its curved Rococo outline was "modernized" by creating a rectangular top paying homage to the Empire style and complemented with a stand by the famous cabinetmaker François Jacob-Desmalter (now Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg). Due to the change to its form, the top cannot be reunited with the original stand. Although the first version of 1761 was never intended for the present console, the ensemble on view in the exhibition gives the visitor an idea of the splendor of pietre dure and Italian carved Rococo furniture at its peak.
In the galleries, this tabletop is displayed alongside the Console Tabletop with Allegory of Water and two gilded consoles. The history of this unique ensemble, reunited in this exhibition for the first time after more than two centuries, is complex. The Allegory of Water hardstone top was executed in little more than a year, after Giuseppe Zocchi's design of January 1760. By April 1761 this marvel of trompe l'oeil in pietre dure and a carved and gilded wooden base with a mermaid and shells (now lost) were on their way to the imperial palace in Vienna, home of the new ruler of Tuscany, Grand Duke Francis Stephen of Habsburg-Lorraine (1708–1765). Following his marriage to Archduchess Maria Theresa of Habsburg in 1737, the couple lived in Florence and surely admired the artistic pietre dure objects in the grand-ducal collection. Francis Stephen, who was interested in the natural sciences and apparently entranced by the Allegory of Water, ordered the Allegory of Air. Zocchi composed various preparatory studies and a painted modello (both of which are on view in the exhibition). During the creation of this pendant table, the emperor died. He was succeeded by his son Peter Leopold (1747–1792), grand duke of Tuscany, who had no intention of sending this major work of art to Vienna. Instead, he envisioned having a second version of the Allegory of Water made for himself in the grand-ducal workshop for his new official residence, the Palazzo Pitti in Florence. The Allegory of Air top was completed in 1766, and a replica of the Allegory of Water was made soon thereafter. Carved by the master Giovanni Battista Dolci and gilded by Francesco Ristori, the elaborate wooden console shows "four legs in the French style." The carved decor reflects the two tops' themes: flowers nourishing butterflies; and shells and coral, products of exotic oceans. The singular set did not stay together long. After Napoleon's invasion of Italy in 1799, his agents took the tops to Paris and left the outdated stands behind. The Allegory of Air top stayed in Paris, where it is now one of the pietre dure masterpieces in the Louvre. Empress Joséphine liked the second version of the Allegory of Water and kept it at her château de Malmaison. Its curved Rococo outline was "modernized" by creating a rectangular top paying homage to the Empire style and complemented with a stand by the famous cabinetmaker François Jacob-Desmalter (now Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg). Due to the change to its form, the top cannot be reunited with the original stand. Although the first version of 1761 was never intended for the present console, the ensemble on view in the exhibition gives the visitor an idea of the splendor of pietre dure and Italian carved Rococo furniture at its peak.
This marvel of ingenuity and refined craftsmanship may have been presented as a diplomatic gift to Pope Pius VI in 1792. It reflects in miniature Rome's Quirinal Monument (1783–86); on either side of the obelisk are groups of horses and their tamers standing on lids that slide out, giving access to an inkwell and a box for sand, used for drying ink on a page. Pushing a lever causes the two turtledoves hovering over the basin below the obelisk to move together. A hidden drawer contains engravings, the silversmith Vincenzo Coaci's business card, a musical score, and other images. The base is decorated with rosso antico marble, strings of silver and gilded-silver pearls, and bracket feet. Also on the base, four sphinxes crouch with baskets on their heads that lift out to disclose candleholders. The selective use of gilding in combination with the royal blue of lapis lazuli and the royal red of the marble achieves an effect of noble serenity and Neoclassical elegance. The original leather case is shaped like a fortified structure with a distinctly Ottoman look. It protects the valuable inkstand within its walls.
The ébéniste Martin Carlin is best known for inventive small-scale furniture mounted with plaques, usually of Sèvres porcelain or Japanese lacquer. Under the patronage of dealers in luxury furnishings, he catered to members of the French royal entourage. This commode was conceived at the height of the Neoclassical fashion in French furniture design, which favored rectangular shapes, an architectural look, and tapering feet. Three-dimensionality is emphasized by the sculptural and sumptuously gilded mounts and the hardstone panels on the front. The central bay is decorated with a Gobelins hardstone relief panel showing a vase filled with a bouquet, reflecting the period's passion for floral arrangements. The two lateral doors are decorated with three Gobelins mosaic panels, two of which are incised with the name "Gachetti," a prominent master. The flat Florentine mosaic panels on the sides contrast with the light-catching clusters of fruit on the front. All the colorful panels are set off to fine effect by the dark ebony veneer. This commode and another important example by Carlin—also on view in the exhibition—are part of the Royal State apartments at Buckingham Palace and have not left the premises together in almost two hundred years.
The Russian stone manufactories came under the administration of Count Aleksandr Sergeievich Stroganov in 1800. After an unusually large crystal was discovered near Nerchinsk, in Siberia, Stroganov commissioned this vessel from the prolific architect and designer Andrei N. Voronikhin. In 1806 the count showed the czar this exceptional vase carved out of rare smoky rock crystal, a quartzite also known as topaz in the eighteenth century. The prized stone may still have been associated with healing powers, such as the ability to strengthen the body's nervous system.